2022 Introduction to Statistics in Research Mitchell 2nd ed

This eBook summarizes information, shows guidance in using JMP, SPSS, Excel, and online resources to create visualizations. Creating a visualization is a key step to understanding your data. The guide provides scenarios so you can determine the next steps in working with your data because the most common question is “ Where do I start ?” or “How does this all fit together?” The first step is to build a foundation. The eBook provides foundational support as well as sections that show step-by-step how to work and then interpret specific statistics.

Correlation Convocations (CC) are a fancy way of describing getting together virtually, playing with data, seeing SPSS and/or Excel in action, and easing into interpreting statistical outputs!

This book contains five chapters: •

Chapter 1- Foundational Concepts Chapter 2 – Visualizing Data – Step 1 Chapter 3 – What test do I use?

• •

• Chapter 4 – Common Statistical Techniques • Chapter 5 – Data Visualization in your presentation

This book will be updated with additional content for your next course, GL874 – Research Critique.

The following research courses are listed here for your convenience. As a reminder, you that you don’t need to know EVERYTHING in the first course!

June 2022 : GL 871 - Introduction to Research Methods & Data Presentation The course will provide an overview of the entire research process starting with formulating research questions, the research design (quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods), how data will be collected ethically, and the steps for appropriate analysis. This course includes an introduction to visual and final report presentation; it also uses case method pedagogy, social science applications, and introductory excel statistics. Feb 2023: GL 874 - Research Critique Students examine published research studies and critically analyze and present the findings. Students will leave this course with the skills necessary to read, understand, and critique most professional journal articles using quantitative research methods. Students will work with existing datasets to apply analytical skills. June 2023 : GL 881 - Advanced Data Analysis and Interpretation This course prepares students to collect, prepare, describe analyze, interpret, and present data. Advanced statistical tools are used to augment decision-making and determine risk. Topics include hypothesis testing, regression, probability, forecasting, and other topics relevant to student research . Students will learn how to effectively use data and statistical methods . Students also learn the best way to write reports that communicate interpretation in a meaningful way. Oct 2023: GL 875 - Research Design Students will combine theory and practice by reviewing research designs for qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches . Students will consider potential theoretical design for their dissertation and reflect on ethics in scholarly inquiry. Feb 2024: GL 872 - Quantitative Methods in Research This course provides an overview of quantitative research methods , data types, populations and samples, sampling techniques, data reliability, research validity, and an introduction to basic quantitative analysis. It includes statistical methods applicable to business research and decision making. Students will be introduced to statistical software as well as learn how to visualize information. April 2024: GL 873 - Qualitative Methods in Research This course provides an overview of how qualitative research is designed, and how data is collected, analyzed, and reported. Besides the analytical framework, this course considers the ethical dilemmas, and human subject approval required for this type of research. This course also introduces the student to software that aids in the analysis as well as ways to visualize information. June 2024 : GL 876 Communicating Research Visually for Publication Students will visualize their research to communicate to a variety of audiences including audiences who come from different backgrounds. Students will master presentation techniques that help the researcher tell a story from a poster show to keynote speaker.

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SAINT MARY -OF -THE-WOODS COLLEGE

Jennie L. Mitchell, PhD, XBRL – International CPA, CMA (inactive, retired) Editor - Αρετή (Arete) Journal of Excellence in Global Leadership

MBTI Professional Emeritus Professor

Second Edition - Copyright, 2022 Saint Mary-of-the-Woods College Saint Mary-of-the-Woods, IN 47876

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T CONTENTS

FOUNDATIONAL CONCEPTS ........................................................................................ 5

What is research? ..................................................................................................................................... 6

Identify a Topic - Scenario Clifton Strengths .............................................................................................. 9

Evaluate Research Studies ........................................................................................................................ 9

Refine topic, frame a problem, develop a hypothesis ................................................................................ 11

Design the Study.................................................................................................................................... 12

Approach Comparison ............................................................................................................................ 14

Research Proposal .................................................................................................................................. 14

Picking the Chair of your Committee ....................................................................................................... 18

Dissertation – three stage process ........................................................................................................... 19

Carrying out the study ............................................................................................................................ 19

Analyze the data .................................................................................................................................... 19

Communicate the results ........................................................................................................................ 20

Submitting to a Journal .......................................................................................................................... 21

Publishing to a journal can be an exciting adventure! ............................................................................... 22

Correlation Convocation #1 & #2 ............................................................................................................ 28

Terms and Definitions............................................................................................................................. 41

Nuts and Bolts of Statistics – Part 1 (with updates!).................................................................................. 53

Nuts and Bolts of Statistics – Part 2 (with updates!).................................................................................. 75

VISUALIZING DATA – STEP 1 ......................................................................................89

Bar Chart ............................................................................................................................................... 92

Comparative Bar Chart ........................................................................................................................... 92

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Comparative Dot Plot ............................................................................................................................. 97

Stem-and-leaf ........................................................................................................................................ 98

Histogram.............................................................................................................................................101

Scatter plot & An Introduction to Anscombe’s Four Datasets ...................................................................105

Time Series Plots...................................................................................................................................107

WHAT TEST DO I USE?.............................................................................................. 110

Parametric Vs. Non-parametric tests ......................................................................................................115

Inferential Statistics for Association .......................................................................................................117

Independent t test Vs Mann-Whitney U test .......................................................................................... 118

One way ANOVA Vs. Kruskal-Wallis Test ................................................................................................120

Paired t-test Vs. Wilcoxon Signed rank test ............................................................................................122

COMMON STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES ...................................................................... 125

Demonstrate Independent t – test......................................................................................................... 126

Demonstrate Mann-Whitney U Test .......................................................................................................131

Demonstrate One way ANOVA test........................................................................................................143

Demonstrate Kruskal-Wallis...................................................................................................................156

Demonstrate Paired-t test ....................................................................................................................159

DATA VISUALIZATIONS IN YOUR PRESENTATIONS.................................................. 167

What is Data Visualization?....................................................................................................................167

Brain on Fire..........................................................................................................................................172

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Chapter 1

FOUNDATIONALCONCEPTS

“ The greatest value of a picture iswhen it forces us to notice what we never expected to see .” ― JohnW. Tukey

he format of the book is devoted to a summarized view data analysis. This book accompanies GL871 – Introduction to Research Methods & Data Presentation . Essentially, GL871 provides an overview of the entire research process starting with formulating research questions, the research design (quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods), how data will be collected ethically, and the steps for appropriate analysis. It also includes an introduction to visual and final report presentation using case method pedagogy with correlation convocation virtual meetings , social science applications, and introductory Excel statistics (as well as SPSS, JMP, and online statistical applications). The first chapter provide foundational concepts. For some, I assume a statistics refresher, but for many of you many of the concepts will be new. Various books will be cited to support this summarized view and please feel free to pursue them if you find a concept troubling. The book, Introduction to Research , was written for the Ph.D. in Global Leadership program and contains a plethora of concepts that encompass foundation concepts, the ethics of data collection, data visualization, common statistical techniques, and presentation or reporting techniques. I’m hoping th is book serves as a bridge to your statistic courses and I will be thrilled if it is the first one you reach for when faced with a research question. The book includes accompanying data files with links to other resources. As much as possible, real research and case studies will be used to help you connect theory and application. All parts of the book are organized using key icons and any section can be reviewed in a stand-alone format. T

THE ICON KEY The icon key helps the reader quickly identify the types of resources available.

I C O N K E Y

 Valuable information  Video Resource  Web Resources

The Valuable information icon indicates that the resource is provided as an accompanying file. The Video Resource indicates that there are videos that relate to the topic that can be found on YouTube. The Web Resources indicate resources on the web. The Book Resources icon indicates good books for reference and indicates their availability. The



Book Resources



How-to information

last icon may be the most valuable for the novice because it is reserved for the How-to information section and users can expect a step-by-step explanation. The electronic format of the book is available to you; therefore, it is easier to search on a topic just when you need it.

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What is research? The definition of research is “the systematic investigation into and study of materials and sources in order

to establish facts and reach new conclusions” (Dictionary). However, there’s a lot of ground to cover in the phrase “systematic investigation”!

The systematic investigation includes:

1) Focus on theory and hypotheses,

2) documenting relevant information (like in a literature review),

3) an ethical process of inquiry (data collection),

4) analysis and interpretation of both the data and the collected information in the literature review,

5) appropriate statistical methodologies to evaluate the hypothesis, and

6) an acceptable process to present the findings (establishing facts and reaching new conclusions!). Woo! I’m tired already!

As an emerging researcher, it is necessary to develop critical thinking, reasoning skills, and communication skills, along with your research skills. Many of you will already have strong critical and reasoning skills, but you haven’t applied them to a dissertation setting. Common dissertation mistakes include 1) superficial arguments that lack depth or presenting unrelated arguments, 2) an imbalanced structure, 3) failure to conduct thorough research, 4) attempting too much, 5) demonstrating a lack of proficiency, and 6) spelling, grammar, and formatting issues (UKWriters Hub, 2018, Dec 6). As you read through the list of mistakes, “interpret statistics correctly” did not make the list. However, most students have a lot of angst if you even mention the word statistics! To change that, let’s start with some of the basics and refresh your memory! DePoy &Gitlin (2020) define research as “…as multiple, systematic strategies to generate knowledge about human behavior, human experience, and human environments in which the thinking and action processes of the researcher are clearl y specified so that they are logical, understandable, confirmable, and useful” (p. 3). Adams & McGuire (2022 ) take it a step further. “Thinking like a researcher first requires one to take a scientific approach. The scientific approach is a specific type of critical thinking that involves approaching a topic with a genuine desire to understand it, identifying and minimizing biases that interfere with the understanding, avoiding overly simplistic explanations, and following a systematic method to study the topic” (p. 3). The first chapter is considered foundational with definitions, and ties to the general sections of the course, Nuts and Bolts Statistics. The second edition connects to several statistics textbooks in an attempt to help bridge your understanding. So, don’t skip reading this chapter just because some things seem familiar!

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Inductive Vs. Deductive Reasoning

VS

Inductive – developing a theory

Deductive – testing an existing theory

Inductive – little existing literature

Deductive – start with a theory

Table 1: Kuhlman, An Infographic of Inductive Vs. Deductive Reasoning, 2021

Inductive research has three steps: 1) observation; 2) patterns and trends; and 3) developing a theory.

Deductive research has four steps: 1) start with an existing theory; 2) formulate a hypothesis based on existing theory; 3) collect data to test the hypothesis; and 4) analyze the results (reject or accept) hypothesis.

This short video has an easy to remember example!

One Minute Economics. (2019, Mar 31). Deduction vs. Induction (Deductive/Inductive Reasoning): Definition/Meaning, Explanation and Examples. [Video file]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/JZQjDfckj9k

Any research strategy shoul d conform to the four criteria of “being logical, understandable, confirmable, and useful” (DePoy & Gitlin, 2015, p. 7). But accept the concept that there are fallacies in both deductive and inductive reasoning. An example of an inductive reasoning falla cy is found in this statement, “What happened in the past will continue to happen in the future” (Anonymous). Just think of the pandemic. Do you really thing that the way we work will revert completely back to how we worked before the pandemic?

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Clearing up some confusion: Research method, Research Methodology, Research Process

Research method and research methodology are not the same thing. Your research method is your way of conducing and implementing research (surveys, interview, mixed methods, etc.).

The research methodology is the science and theories behind the research. You should expect a methodology chapter where you identify what data to collect, who to collect if from, how to collect it, how to analyze it, and why the methodological choices were made. “ Science must include a transparent method that can be evaluated and replicated by others” (Adams & McGuire, 202 2, p. 6). The research process is usually presented in a list of steps. DePoy & Gitlin (2020), list ten essentials of research (p.15) and Adams & McGuire (2022) lists seven steps to the research process (p. 27). Let’s look at a comparison:

Adams & McGuire Research Process Steps

DePoy & Gitlin Ten Essentials of Research

1. Identify a topic

#1- Identify philosophical foundation #3 - Determine supporting knowledge #4 - Identify a theory base # 2 - Frame a research problem #5 – Develop a specific questing or query

2. Find, read, and evaluate past research

3. Refine topic and develop a hypothesis

#6 – Select a design strategy #7 - Set study boundaries #8 – Obtain information*

4. Design the study

5. Carry out the study* 6. Analyze the data 7. Communicate the results

#9 – Analyze information and draw conclusions #10 – Share and use research knowledge

Table 2 : Comparing Research Steps to Ten Essentials of Research

* IRB review. Some studies will require IRB approval. This step could not be started until approval is received.

Experimental-type research is much stricter at following a linear model; however, a “mixed -methods approach will sequence the 10 essentials differently” ( DePoy & Gitlin, 2020, p. 15).

Global Datasets for Public Use

This is a great website from Gallup (CliftonStrengths) on public datasets available (from their clients). Please visit: https://www.gallup.com/analytics/318923/world-poll-public-datasets.aspx

My favorite by far is BRIQ Institute with their Global Preferences Survey. Not only do they give you the dataset to download, you can see instant data visualizations. Please visit: https://www.briq- institute.org/global-preferences/maps

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Identify a Topic - Scenario Clifton Strengths One of the main goals of analysis is to study the association between variables. For example, a group of 50 employees completed their CliftonStrengths and received a report that shows their own top five strengths compared to the entire group of employees (in the U.S.). You work for a global company with a presence

in several other countries. Global teams include representation from each site and one of the main purposes for taking the CliftonStrengths was to improve team performance. In your group discussion, questions are raised because you want to review the impact on team performance if employees are assigned to teams based on CliftonStrengths instead of randomly chosen by leadership. Others raised questions about Myers-Briggs, since employees took that assessment five years ago. This discussion prompts you to consider if certain strengths are significantly different depending on the country you are

Table 3: Camtasia Asset (Purchased)

from, as well as if there is any connection between Myers-Briggs and CliftonStrengths. Now that I have your interest (showing you the fun side of research), let’s make sure to remind you of the best way to evaluate research. Evaluate Research Studies The next step in the process, is to find, read, and evaluate research. In this scenario, where would we search? How should you evaluate the studies you find?

Schenck, P. M. (2009). Analyzing the relationship of strengths to personality preferences and vocational interests utilizing clifton StrengthsFinder, myers -briggs type indicator, and strong interest inventory (Order No.

Start at the library in the thesis database and search on the term “ Clifton .” Expect to find several studies that might be relevant. I purposefully used dissertations so that you will start to get familiar with this database. Rationale for this study: Schenck’s study include s Myers Briggs with several research questions that seem applicable. Besides the normal criteria for evaluating a resource, there are three questions to consider as you evaluate a research study.

3401033). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (304862735).

Question 1: Did the study have enough power. According to Adams &McGuire, (2023), “the stronger the pattern or relationship and the larger the sample, the more power the study has and the greater likelihood of finding statically signific ant results” (p. 53).

✓ Yes , the Schenck study had a sample size of 164.

Question 2: Did the author hypothesize a relationship between variables and did they utilize a design and procedure that helped demonstrate causation? (Ibid, p. 54) This question relates to internal validity which will be discussed in more depth later.

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✓ Somewhat – One of the research questions was to study the relationship between strengths and personality preferences. It is possible that this study will provide some insight.

Question 3: How strong is the external validity of the study? (Ibid, p. 54). You want your results to be generalized to other samples, settings, or procedures, but there may be limitations. Expect a deeper discussion on both validities: internal and external in later chapters. ✓ Caution – this study’s participants are in an academic program and the purpose of this study is to help identify relationships between vocational interests and strengths. Need to review direct resources (see the reference section). One of my favorite illustration in Adams & McGuire’s (2022) textbook is the Shape of a Primary Research Article which is a great model as you write your own article. It is shown here as a convenience (but you can find it on page 55 in the textbook).

Table 4: Adams &McGuire (2022). p. 55

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Refine topic, frame a problem, develop a hypothesis As you refine your topic and evaluate your research, consider your construct and your operational definition. A construct can’t be “ directly observed or measured ” (Ibid, 2022, p. 64). A person’s weight is precise and objective, but how would you operationally define personality, self-esteem, shyness, or plagiarism? There is no one right answer; there are lots of ways to measure these constructs. As a researcher, we use a construct as an abstract concept to help explain a “phenomenon.” Constructs can be simple or complex. But what a research must do is determine an operational definition. According to Adams & McGuire, an operational definition is “ the explicit explanation of a variable in terms of how it is measured or manipulated” (2023, p. 64). It is how a researcher determines data collection. It should be a clear, concise definition of a measure. DePoy & Gitlin (2020), add “Construct validity addresses the fit between the constructs that are the focus of the study and the way in which these constructs are operationali zed” (p. 125). 2) What about this topic… is relevant to my practice? 3) What about this topic … is unresolved in literature? 4) What is my preferred way of… coming to know about the topic? Do you know the common database used in your discipline? 5) What link to societal or professional purposes does this topic serve? 6) What resources do I have to investigate this topic? (p. 62). A hypothesis for Clifton Strengths Scenario: Lots of work needs to be done before we develop a hypothesis since research questions should be guided by a hypothesis. For example in the Clifton Strengths scenario, we want to know if teams perform better if employees are added intentionally (presumably using the strengths of each team member) instead of employees randomly assigned to teams. We have several things to consider here. If management takes the time to know the strengths of each employee, this might impact performance as much as the new team interaction! So, does intentional formulating teams using CliftonStrengths leads to better performance? And how would we test or measure better performance. Clearly, we need to evaluate lots of literature before we get to a working hypothesis. And remember a hypothesis is stated as a relationship between variables. Just as a hypothesis alerts a reader to a quantitative approach, it should prompt the writer to include a discussion of the theory, the assumptions underlying the theory, and a bridge to how the hypothesis is grounded in a theoretical framework. DePoy & Gitlin (2020) suggest six guiding questions to help you refine a topic: 1) What about this topic… interests me?

Question 1: Which phrase best represents an operational definition of plagiarism?

A) Including a phrase of more than 3 words from another source without citing the source. B. Making a higher grade than expected. C. Not paraphrasing properly. D. Copying work. Answer: D (Adams & McGuire, 2022, p. 21)

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Design the Study How do you measure this construct? Should you use qualitative or quantitative or a mixed methods approach? And what would that look like? I’m sure this isn’t new to you – qualitative measures are nonnumerical and quantitative measures are numerical. But what might be new is the stateme nt, “there is no one “perfect” research design” ( Adam & McGuire, 2022, p. 521). It’s interesting how the two main textbooks used in this class approach this topic. Adam & McGuire start discussing the basics of research design in chapter five, but Chapter 16 - How to Decide ?” Choosing a Research Design and Selecting the Correct Analysis , is the last chapter in the book. DePoy & Gitlin (2023), has three chapters on the most popular design approaches, but no chapter on how to choose a research design. a) It tells us what the research is about. b) It tells us where the data will be found. c) It tells us where you will do your research d) It tell us how much time you will use in doing in your research. e) It tells us how much materials will be used in order to make the research successful. f) It tells us which techniques, instruments, or methods of research will be used in the data collection process ” (p. 33). Migo (2016) compared research design as the “ foundation of a house with the following aspects:

Whether you consider your research design a foundation for a house or a roadmap, the more time you spend on planning and thinking through this section the better your committee will understand the research proposal.

Adams and McGuire (2023) has wonderful flow charts that are worth mentioning. These include:

1) Questions to Guide Your Choice of a Research Design (p. 523); 2) Deciding Between Independent and Dependent Groups Designs (p. 526);

3) Factorial Designs (p. 527); 4) Decision Tree When Analyzing One Variable (p. 528); 5) Decision Tree When Examining Relationships Between Variable (no groups) (p. 529); 6) Decision Tree When Comparing Groups or Conditions (p. 530) as well as a table that shows a statistical analysis and when to use (p. 531).

There are three approaches: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approach (this just means you use both qualitative and quantitative). The purpose of your research will help you decide which approach. (See table 5 for more details.) If your study uses Human Subjects: Before taking the next step and conducting your study, you need to consider if your study involves human subjects. If it does, you need to consider the requirements of the Institutional Review Board at Saint Mary- of-the-Woods College. No actual research can be conducted with human subjects until two things happen. First , you must pass mandatory research training. It is possible that some of you have completed this training through your master’s program or through another institution, but if not , you must successfully complete the Basic Course in the Protection of Human Research Subjects. The IRB at Saint Mary-of-the-

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Woods College uses citprogram.org. To find out more, visit Instructions for CITI program. Additional training (a refresher course) is required every three years. Ph.D. students complete additional modules.

Second, you must complete your Human Subjects Review Form A and the appropriate additional forms (which differ depending on your study). These forms are on the SMWC IRB website.

All research must be reviewed by an IRB (eith er SMWC’s IRB or your own organization’s IRB) . If the project has minimal risk, it is possible to request an exemption or request an expedited review. It depends on the study and your participants. Never start a study involving human subjects until you have gained IRB approval. DePoy and Gitlin (2020) provide some good advice on setting study boundaries for an experimental type design. Boundary examples include: setting a duration for the study, determining who can participate , “the conceptual dimensions to be examined, and the type and range of questions that will be asked ” (p.21). Naturalistic-type studies and mixed methods are much more diverse in boundary setting strategies. For example, the researcher starts the study and gains context, and as they gain a better understanding of the context, they make a decision as to who they want to interview, or what data that might collect. The design is your house or roadmap. The more you plan and consider all the potential issues with your design the better prepared you will be to move forward. Although you will dive deeper into research design in later courses, a few basic approaches outline by Patricia Leavy (2017) in her Research Design book.

Research Approaches

Approach

Paradigm

Theoretical Schools

Genres

Methods

Quantitative Postpositivist Empiricism

Experiments

Randomized, quasi, single- subject Questionnaires Structured, semi- structured, in-depth, oral history, biographical minimalist, focus group Participant observation, nonparticipant observation, digital ethnography, visual ethnography Content analysis, document analysis, visual analysis, audio analysis, audiovisual analysis, historical

Survey Research

Qualitative Postpositivist Interpretive/ constructivist Critical

Empiricism Symbolic interactionism Ethnomethodology Dramaturgy Phenomenology Postmodernism Poststructuralism

Interview

Field research

Indigenous Critical race LBGQT+ Feminist

Unobtrusive methods

Mixed methods

Pragmatic

Any

Mixed Methods Sequential, convergent, nested (integrated uses of any quantitative and qualitative method)

Table 5: Leavy, P. (2017). Research Methods, p. 18

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Patricia Leavy. (2017). Research Design : Quantitative, Qualitative, Mixed Methods, Arts-Based, and Community-Based Participatory Research Approaches . The Guilford Press. eBook Collection Database: (EBSCOhost). Leavy included two opter approaches: Arts-based research and Community-Based Participatory research that may be of interest.

Question: I want to do a study that includes a pre and post questionnaire (survey). Does this type of study need IRB for approval?

Answer: Yes.

Approach Comparison Regardless of which method you choose, if human subjects are involved, you need to tell your committee how information will be collected from human subjects. As you can see in the table, we show three types of approaches: quantitative, qualitative and mixed methods. In the proposal stage, you will explain how you “ will ” c ollect the data. So in the proposal stage you might start the discussion like this.

Sample Language seen at proposal and revised for dissertation

In the proposal stage

In the dissertation stage

Because this study involves human subjects, I will seek approval from the Saint Mary-of- the-Woods College Institutional Review Board (IRB) as required. After I receive IRB approval, I will take precautions to ensure ethical considerations ( tell how ), ensure anonymity ( tell how ), follow a strict interview protocol ( see example below ), and ensure that any identifiable information is scrubbed. My IRB Human Subject Forms including consent forms are available in Appendix C as part of this proposal.

Because this study involved human subjects, approval from Saint Mary-of-the-Woods College Institutional Review Board (IRB) was required. After receiving IRB approval, precautions were taken to ensure ethical considerations ( tell how ), ensure anonymity ( tell how ), follow a strict interview protocol ( tell

how ), and ensure that any identifiable information ( tell how ) was scrubbed ….

The consent forms used in the study are in Appendix C.

Table 6: Comparison of language for a proposal to dissertation

Research Proposal There are many dissertation proposal templates on the internet but before you start your search, make sure to read DePoy & Gitlin’s Chapter 22, Sharing Research Knowledge Before the Study. Writing a research proposal has to be approved by one and most often two bodies. The first is your committee and the second body is the Institutional Review Board if you have Human Subjects in your study. Writing a research proposal has five basic principles:

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1) Clarity – DONOT ASSUME your professors know exactly what you mean. Instead write it like your reader will be someone across another continent (and who knows, they may be!) Avoid the use of jargon and expression that are not scholarly. 2) Precision – DO NOT ASSUME that your proposal should be all text or that your committee will overlook grammar or spelling issues. Use Grammarly and read your paper carefully for typos, and other mechanical issues. Also, don’t assume that citations provided to you by the library are always correct. I’ve noticed some errors in c apitalization of titles from our own Rooney Library. Be consistent in headings. There is an example APA-Style Manuscript provided in Appendix B of the Adams & McGuire book. Consider adding tables, illustrations, and timelines if it adds value for the reader.

3) Parsimony – Most research proposals are between 20 to 25 pages (of content) double-spaced.

4) Coherence – DO NOT HAVE CONTRADICTIONS; instead be consistent in content and format.

5) Structure – APA Style Guide 7 th edition

DePoy and Gitlin (2020) outlines the proposal requirements but some of the requirements are geared toward a funder. For example, DePoy & Gitlin (2020) discuss a supporting materials section, a budget with justification, and a CV. Although this is good information, it may not be required by your committee or the Institutional Review Board.

So, l et’s look at the general requirements of a dissertation proposal.

General Guides for a Dissertation Proposal This is a general guide:

1) Title page with a working title. If you have looked at ProQuest Database and reviewed a few of the dissertations, you may notice that the titles are long (sometimes as long as 12 words). Don’t use extra words like “A study of…” Use key words that will resonate with your research.

2) Copyright page (intellectual property rights belong to the student)

3) Abstract (single spaced, not to exceed 250 words)

4) Table of Contents/List of figures/List of tables

5) Chapter I:

a. A general overview: In this section, share the subject/content and how it fits to your discipline.

b. Include: nature and scope, rationale, intended audience, theoretical framework.

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c. Include background of the problem: Set the stage. It should be compelling. It should provide context and the reader should understand the purpose.

d. Key research questions : What are the questions you’ll be looking to answer? What do you hope to find out. Explain your hypothesis. Be realistic – don’t outsell something you can’t deliver. This section will look different depending on your research approach (quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods).

6) Chapter II

a. Review of relevant literature : The amount of literature review should show your awareness of themes, debates or controversies, and theories that relate to your research. Your research needs to show that you are doing something that has not been done before. Tie to research question.

7) Chapter III

a. Methodology Overview: Describe research methods.

b. How are you planning to do your research: selection of participants, procedure to protect participants.

c. Data sources (i.e. audio tapes, video tapes, transcripts of conversations, etc.) Data collection procedures.

d. Will you use quantitative, qualitative, or both? Why have you chosen this methodology?

e. How will you consider reliability and validity (i.e., triangulation, peer debriefing, etc.)

f. Expected results: Explain what you hope to achieve. Share how your research could affect or impact the subject area.

g. Timeline: This is the section where you plan when the study will be conducted. It should be realistic. Keep in mind – this could be changed later if something comes up – but this section is important for the committee to determine you have a good project that is achievable.

8) References: This section includes your references for the proposal in APA format. These references should be current, relevant, and from leading authors.

Human Subjects Review Form A

Now, let’s compare these sections to what the Human Subjects Review Form A (a SMWC Institutional Review Board form) requires. Screen captures shown here are from the form that was revised in 2019. It is possible that the form is revised, so make sure to check.

The research proposal should be approved by the committee before it can be submitted to the IRB. The principal investigator is your chair.

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Saint Mary of the Woods College IRB website is at http://www.smwc.edu/irb

The first part of the form is the status (Exempt, Expedited, Limited Board Review, Full Board Review, Approved by other IRB) and the investigator information. You are not the principal investigator.

Figure 1: Human Subject Form A - SMWC Institutional Review Board (2019)

A continuation of the form includes the following questions:

•

What is the level of risk involved?

• Explain the nature of the risk(s) involved to subjects. • If more than minimal risk, explain potential benefits to subjects. • What procedures will be used to obtain informed consent? (attach copy of the consent form) • If subjects are under age 18, what procedure will be used to obtain assent? (Attach copy of assent form) • What procedures will be used to provide feedback and/or debriefing to subjects following completion of the study? • Is there any potential conflict of interest?

Please note that the Human Subject form A is currently undergoing revisions.

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The Institutional Review Board also requires: 1) copy of your successful completion record for CITI training (or comparable training from another institution). 2) Any appropriate consent forms 3) Letters of support if required (for example, if you were conducting your work at other institutions, you need either a letter of support or proof that you received approval from their IRB) 4) If your study includes survey questions, you need the list of survey questions (not just a link to your survey) 5) In addition to completing this packet, the SMWC IRB requires all of this combined into one single document . Picking the Chair of your Committee A very important aspect of a successful dissertation experience revolves around your choice of your committee. You may have heard some horrific stories about the dissertation process. I’m confident that that will not be the case at Saint Mary-of-the-Woods College, but I do want to give you some advice about choosing your potential chair. The composition of your committee is important to your success. Think about the projects you’ve completed in the past and recognize how you work. Choose faculty members you know, like, and can work with. They become your panel of experts , so “recognize this time for the opportunity it truly represents” (Watson, 2020 Oct 29, para 26).

What questions might you ask a potential chair?

Research

Feedback

Expectations

Do you specialize in quantitative or qualitative research? Are you familiar with my proposed research design? Do you think our research interests are a good match? Do you require your students find other support for statistics? (like a different committee member or hired statistics guru)?

How often will you be able to provide feedback?

What do you expect from a doctoral student from the Ph.D. in Global Leadership program? Would you like to see a writing sample?

How many drafts is normal?

What kind of students do best under your supervision?

Will the primary focus of your feedback be content, methodology, writing, or format?

How do you prefer to communicate? Will you accept unscheduled communications, or do you prefer to schedule communication in advance? How often will we meet (virtually)? Should we work from an agenda when we meet?

Will you review drafts before my dissertation classes start?

Table 7: Questions to consider when asking someone to chair your dissertation committee

Talk to your mentor before approaching anyone to be on your committee. They can provide advice as well.

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Dissertation – three stage process Before we discuss all the features of carrying out the study, let’s look at the Ph.D. in Global Leadership three stage process and consider all the components leading up to stage one. For example, as you work through your classes, consider faculty who would add value to your committee. Choosing a dissertation committee is an important decision because they will guide you through the process. More information is available in the dissertation manual.

The three stages of the dissertation process at SMWC Date Course Description

Aug 2024 (2 hr) Oct 2024 (3 hr) Dec 2024 (1 hr)

Stage 1 - GL897 – Qualifying Research Seminar*

1) Develop introduction, literature review and methodology 2) Present a qualifying research introduction 1) Culminate the introduction, literature review and methodology 2) Virtually defend the dissertation proposal 3) Apply to the SMWC IRB 1) Independently conduct, analyze and complete previously approved research 2) Present oral presentation to defend dissertation

Stage 2 – GL898 – Dissertation Proposal

Stage 3 – GL 899 – Dissertation Defense

* At least two of the three residency requirements must be fulfilled prior to register for GL897 (GL Handbook, p. 8)

Carrying out the study When you get to this section, review Chapter 3 – Research Ethics from the DePoy &Gitlin (2020) textbook. It’s difficult to develop a step -by-step set of instructions for this section because each of you will have a different design depending on the purpose of the study. But in all things be ethical. Keep in mind that it is possible you don’t get the results you expected. That’s just part of the dissertation journey. Analyze the data The analysis section will depend on the type of statistic that matches your research. The first step is always to visualize your data or uses statistical software to determine the shape of the distribution. Statistics are normally divided into two camps: parametric versus nonparametric. There are three assumptions that must be valid to use a parametric statistic. 1) interval or ratio data, 2) normally distributed, and 3) homogeneity of variance for groups. Parametric statistics are the most powerful, but if you violate the required assumptions and use them anyway, your statistics and your results will be incorrect. This text written for you has a quick guide to which test to use depending on the type of data you have collected. But here’s the thing, you don’t need to memorize and understand ALL of them. You only need to know the statistical test that works for your data. This will be explained in greater detail in later chapters.

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There are multiple statistical packages available. You may use any of them; however, the Ph.D. Advisory Board chose to use SPSS (since it is most used in Academia) and that will be the package we explain.

Just so you know, SPSS (version 27 premium) can be rented through the SMWC’s OnTheHub Store for $88.95/12 months or through StudentDiscounts.com for around $77.00/12 months.

Question : When researchers collect and report on new data, those data are

a. b. c. d.

Primary data Secondary data Either a or b

None of the above.

Answer: a

Question : ______________refers to the generalizability of the results of a study.

a. b. c. d.

Statistical significance

Power

External validity Internal validity

Answer: c

Question: The internal consistency of a scale is questioned when

a. b. c. d.

α = .80. α < .70. α > .70 α >.90

Hint: See Global Warming Dataset in Correlation Convocation! Answer: b

Communicate the results Adams & McGuire (2022) say, “Communicating what the results mean, how they fit or don’t fit with past research, limitations of the study, and suggestions for further research allows others to learn from and build upon research” (p. 14). As a reminder, a complete manuscript showing proper APA style is available in Appendix B of the Adams & McGuire textbook. Keep in mind that a dissertation will have specific title page requirements.

Also, in the Adams & McGuire (2022) textbook, a sample article is shown (p.595) that was submitted and then published by the Society for the Teaching of Psychology journal hosted by Sage Publications.

You should consider the publication requirements of journals even as you are on your dissertation journey. So to get you started, let’s look at some of the opportunities that may match your r esearch interest.

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